THORNDIKE AND SKINNER

Edward Thorndike:

1. Explain Thorndike's puzzle-box experiment.

Thorndike placed a cat on a puzzle box and the animal was encouraged to get out by putting him food outside the box. The only way the cat could get out of the box was by pressing a lever. After the cat would get out he was placed again inside the box and timed, each time he took less time to get out of the puzzle box.

2. Explain Thorndike's "Law of Effect".

The “Law of Effect” states that actions bring a consequence and that determines future behavior.

3. Explain Thorndike's "Law of Exercise".

The “Law of Exercise” stated that the behavioral responses that were followed by a pleasing result are most likely to occur again in response to the same stimulus.  

B.F. Skinner:

1. Explain Skinner's concept of Operant Conditioning

Skinner’s concept of Operant Conditioning stated that reinforcement and punishment change our behavioral tendencies.

2. What does  reinforcement always do?

The behavior always increases.

3. What does a punishment always do?

The behavior always decreases.

4. Explain the difference between "positive" and "negative" as they are used in operant conditioning.

Positive: something is given. Negative: something is taken away.

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/689639/Thorndikes-law-of-exercise

http://www.simplypsychology.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/edward-thorndike.html

PAVLOV AND WATSON

Ivan Pavlov:

1. What was Pavlov actually studying when he developed his theory of classical conditioning?

Pavlov was studying the digestive system and his experiment was the salivation in dogs when they were presented with food.

2. Explain (in detail) how Pavlov's experiment was conducted.

In the experiment conducted by Pavlov, he used a dog surgically prepared so that measurements of salivary flow could be obtained. The dog was given food and the salivation would be measured. The experiment went wrong because the dog started to relate the sound of footsteps, a bell or a metronome to food, so he started to salivate before the food was given.

3. Identify the conditioned stimulus, the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned response from Pavlov's experiment.

The meat is the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned stimulus is the bell presented with food and the conditioned response is when the dog salivated because of the bell.

4. Explain what extinction means in relation to classical conditioning.

Extinction is the gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of the conditioned response tendency. Extinction occurs from multiple presentations of the conditioned stimuli without the unconditioned stimuli.

5. Explain what stimulus generalization means in relation to classical conditioning.

Stimulus generalization is a response to a specific stimulus becoming associated to other stimuli (similar stimuli) and now occurs to those other similar stimuli. An example would be the generalization of a fear, like fear to all dogs when only attacked by a specific one.

6. Explain what stimulus discrimination means in relation to classical conditioning.

Stimulus discrimination is learning to respond to one stimulus and not another.

7. Explain at least two limitations of this experiment.

Some limitations of this experiment was that Pavlov only used two dogs to test this theory. Also, Pavlov never tested humans so we do not know if this also applies to human beings.

8. Explain what Pavlov theorized about how we learn.

He theorized that when you pair a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus the neutral stimulus takes on the same meaning—it becomes conditioned.

John B. Watson:

1. Explain (in detail) how Watson's "Little Albert" study was conducted.

Watson got a baby named for the study as Albert and he was exposed with rats and other furry objects; at first there was no fear. Later on, he presented the same animals and object but bow with a loud noise that made him cry and showed fear. Afterwards, “Little Albert” would cry and show fear each time he saw the animal or object without the noise.

2. Identify the conditioned stimulus, the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned response from Watson's study

Conditioned Stimulus: The rat and the fury objects presented to “little Albert”.

Unconditioned Stimulus: Loud sound.

Conditioned Response: Fear that Albert showed toward rats and furry objects.

3. Explain at least two limitations of this study.

Some limitations of this study are that Watson only used one child and that this study was unethical so it cannot be replicated.

4. Explain Watson's law of frequency.

His law of frequency said that the more frequent a stimulus and response to occur in association with each other, the stronger that habit will become.

5. Explain Watson's law of recency.

Watson’s law of recency said that the response that has most recently occurred after a particular stimulus is the response most likely to be associated with that stimulus.

6. Explain the basic assumptions of behaviorism according to Watson.

Watson’s basic assumptions of behaviorism were that all behavior is determined by our environment, that the primary means of investigating learning is by observation and that the learning process can be studied more objectively when the focus of study is on stimuli and responses.

WORKS CITED:

http://teachnet.edb.utexas.edu/~Lynda_abbot/Behaviorism.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Albert_experiment

http://www.bukisa.com/articles/59927_pavlovs-basic-experiment

http://www.learning-theories.com/classical-conditioning-pavlov.html

ARTICLES ABOUT SLEEP

http://www.andreadams.com/the_cartoon_express_teenagers_2.htm

Delayed School Start Time Associated With Improvements in Adolescent Behaviors: This study was conducted by Judith A. Owens, M.D., M.P.H., of the Hasbro Children’s Hospital. The experiment consisted on studying 201 students from a high school in Rhode Island. The class start time in this institution would be delayed 30 minutes from 8 to 8:30 a.m. When the study was over students reported more time of sleep, had more motivation and fatigue-related complaints reduced. Students had 45 minutes more of sleep each day helping them to have a better day at school and coming closer to the appropriate time of hours of sleep each night. I believe that based on studies like this one schools all over the world should start class times later improve their students lives.

http://www.naturalbuy.com/page/23/

Performing Under Sleep Deprivation: It’s In Your Genes: This next study presented was performed by Antoine Viola, Derk-Jan Dijk, and colleagues at University of Surrey’s Sleep Research Center. The purpose of the study was to know if the two variants (short or long) of the gene PERIOD3 influenced in morning and evening activity levels. This can later be connected to the influences these genes might have on performance by unrested individuals. The results of the study were that during the early hours of the morning individuals with the longer variant performed poorly on tests for attention and working memory. Also, only those possessing the longer variant of the gene had 50% more deep sleep than the rest. I believe that these findings are very interesting and important to have fewer accidents during the night shift workers. With these results companies can choose their night shift workers correctly.

http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-16181839/stock-photo-cheerful-sleeping-cartoon-puppy-on-a-green-background.html

High School Students With A Delayed School Start Time Sleep Longer, Report Less Daytime Sleepiness: This study was conducted by Zaw W. Htwe, MD, of Norwalk Hospital’s Sleep Disorders Center. The study was on 259 high school students who answered a questionnaire of school sleep habits. This study was made to compare the results of the students before and after a 40 minute delay school start time. At first they reported sleeping a mean of 7.03 hours per school night, with a mean of bed time from 10:52 to a wake-up time of 6:12. After the 40 minute delay school start time student sleep time increased 33 minutes and they utilized 83% of the extra time for sleep. This study shows us that students will sleep longer if they are given the opportunity. I believe that schools should make these changes to their schedules to improve the efficiency and hours of sleep of their students.

THE TEENAGE BRAIN

During the past days we have been seeing a video about the teenage brain. It was very interesting and learned new things that I never imagined of. When you become a teenager your brain is not fully developed and it changes a lot through this time period, especially your frontal lobe. Some common behavior of teenagers are: believing that no one understands them, forgetting things they do not want to do, getting less sleep than needed, etc. Getting little sleep in your teen age years is very important for your whole body and specially your brain. During these years you need at least 9 hours of sleep a day. I believe this is really important because you act completely different when lacking sleep. Also, another thing that adolescents do is taking bad decisions or irresponsible decisions. Many teens in the United States suffer car accidents because of their bad decision making. The teens use another part of the brain to percept emotions in others. This is why they sometimes ask their parents that why are they angry when they are speaking totally normal. Adolescence is a time of high risk in which we can take decisions that can affect our entire life. This is why we should try to make the best decisions possible to get out of adolescence unharmed. In my opinion it is impressive how scientist could find all this differences between a teenager and an adults brain.

http://www.enasco.com/product/SB38579G

THE BRAIN

1. What does the word "hemisphere" refer to when talking about the brain?

The brain is separated right through the middle in two different hemispheres, right and left. Each of these hemispheres are specialized for some behaviors.

2. What are the major differences between the left and right sides of the brain?

The left brain is more school like and the left side is more creative and emotional.

3. What is the corpus collasum?

A thick band of 200-250 million nerve fibers that helps the hemispheres communicate with each other.

4. Explain the study performed by Paul Broca in which he discovered "Broca's Area."

Paul Broca studied the brain of a speech impaired person after his death.

5. Explain the study conducted by Roger Sperry in regard to "split brain."

Sperry made experiments to people who had surgery to cut the corpus callosum. These experiments proved that it isolated information from reaching one hemisphere. The right brain dominates when there is no speech and the left when there is speech.

6. Explain the study conducted by Karl Wernicke which led to the discovery of Wernicke's Area."
Karl Wernicke studied people with aphasia that couldn’t comprehend language. He then saw that they had cerebral injuries in the Wernicke’s Area and because of this they had the language comprehension problem.

7. Which lobe is most responsible for vision?

The occipital lobe is the one in charge for visual perception.

8. Which lobe is most responsible for hearing and language?

The temporal lobe is responsible for hearing and language.

9. Which lobe is most responsible for performing math calculations?

The parietal lobe is responsible for performing math calculations.

10. Which lobe is most responsible for judgment, reasoning and impulse control?

The frontal lobe is responsible for judgment, reasoning and impulse control.



http://www.rhsmpsychology.com/Calendar/October.html



PHINEAS GAGE

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phineas_Gage

1. Who was Phineas Gage?

Phineas Gage was born in 1823 I n Vermont and became a railroad construction worker. He is remember through history and psychology because he survived a bizarre accident that changed his life afterwards.

2. Describe the event which caused his injury.

While he was working on a railroad a tamping iron went under his left cheekbone and through the top of his head, landing about 30 yards behind him. Phineas was knocked over but did not lost his consciousness even though the front part of the left side of his brain was completely destroyed. Dr. Harlow treated him and he had a rapid recovery.  

http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/science/case_study_20080521.shtml

3. What happened to him as a result of his injuries?

A couple of years after his injury he came back to work, but he had a strange change of personality. Before the accident he was a very good and nice person, efficient and had a well-balanced mind. After the accident he became irregular, rude, and grossly disrespectful, and showed little difference for its fellows.

 
4. What did we learn about the brain based on this case study?

We learned that the brain controls some attributes of people like personality. After part of his brain was destroyed Phineas became a mean and rude person that said what he thought without bothering if this comments would hurt the other person’s feelings.

5. Explain the idea of brain localization?

The idea of brain localization means that different parts of the brain carry out different kinds of functions and that not all parts of the brain do the same thing.

6. Explain the concept of brain lateralization?

Brain lateralization is that the left and right side of the brain can control many different aspects of behavior in different categories.

http://ninespv.files.wordpress.com/2009/03/left_right_brain_xp1.jpg

Sources: http://www.deakin.edu.au/hmnbs/psychology/gagepage/Pgstory.php

http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/science/case_study_20080521.shtml

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phineas_Gage

http://facstaff.gpc.edu/~bbrown/psyc1501/brain/loclat.htm

ATHLETIC ABILITY

To begin with, nature versus nature is a very controversial debate that has developed through the years. This is a term used in psychology related to whether heredity (nurture) or the environment (nature) most impact human psychological behavior. In my opinion, athletic ability uses a little bit of both, nurture and nature. You may be born with athletic characteristics and since a baby like playing soccer and other sports, which is my case. You can get your athletic ability by the environment in which you live in; if you live in a house where the rest of your family likes and does sports it is very probable that you are also going to like them. Also, I believe that with practice and perseverance you can become good at any sport you want.

 Some scientist believes that genetics shape us in many ways including our athletic ability. Genetics have a say on strength, muscle size, lung capacity, flexibility, and endurance. Some people are born with a more of these components and they will have a superior possibility of becoming better athletes. Your genes may also determine how your body responds to training, diet and other factors. Genetically gifted athletes will have a much greater response to training and will have more efficiency than others. Some new researches show that single-nucleotide polymorphisms might explain why some people can reach higher levels of performance and become better athletes. This is the first evidence that might indicate that genes can affect athletic ability. Future research on genetics affecting athletic ability can help people to know who haves and does not have the possibility of becoming a good athlete.

 Although there is some evidence that athletic ability can be affected by genetics; the environment also affects the athletic ability of a person. Nutrition and training can have a very important part in the career of an athlete. Many scientists think that “sport performance and sport expertise is entirely the result of hours spent in focused, effortful training rather than natural, inheritable traits.” Performance might be nothing more than a specific skill or psychological adaptation acquired through training. Athletic ability may also depend on when your training started in a specific sport. Another thing that might affect your athletic ability is how your parents and family feel toward sports, if they support them is very possible that you become god at them. Many examples of athletes that when born had many health complications make us believe that it is not the genetics of someone that make an athlete.


In conclusion, after doing my research I believe that nature and nurture both affect the athletic ability equally. You need both nature and nurture to become an excellent athlete and have a great career. Your genes, nutrition, training and many other aspects will make you a successful athlete. This as many other things in psychology has many theories and none of them can be proved so each and everyone opinions are in some way right and wrong. In my opinion nature affects in a 60% and nurture in a 40% because nature gives you your DNA which defines your muscle tissue, performance and efficiency. I really enjoyed researching about this topic because I would like to become a professional athlete and would like to know where do pro-players get their talent.

Sources: http://expertfootball.com/training/naturevsnurture.php


http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=a-gene-for-athleticism-hl

http://www.sportsci.org/jour/0101/wghgene.htm

http://sportsmedicine.about.com/od/anatomyandphysiology/a/genetics.ht